S3E2 - Slater Mill and Slatersville

Hello and welcome to the Story of Rhode Island. The podcast that tells you the story of Rhode Island’s fascinating history. In last week’s episode we watched Samuel Slater and his team of Pawtucket craftsmen successfully spin cotton into yarn via water powered technology for the first time in American history. And while this achievement has enabled this young nation to take the first step into the age of industrialization it has not come without its growing pains. As we revisit Slater in Pawtucket we see him working at his textile factory aptly known as Slater Mill, an establishment largely considered to be the first industrial factory in America. This historic building still stands today and acts as an enduring reminder that the American Industrial Revolution started in the tiny state of Rhode Island. However, as we visit the mill on a February day in 1796, such an inspiring scene is nowhere to be found. Instead, we see Samuel Slater in an extremely agitated state while writing a letter to his business partners, William Almy and Obadiah Brown, the latter having replaced Smith Brown when he retired in 1791. While in his letter Slater is politely asking his business partners to QUOTE “Please send some fleece cotton” UNQUOTE it would more accurately reflect his state of mind if it read “Why the hell have you not sent me fleece cotton yet”. And Slater would have every right to articulate his letter in such an abrasive manner because for the past few years he’s had to deal with almy and Brown consistently failing to supply him with cotton. Slater continues his letter by explaining that if they fail to send him cotton right away then he’ll have to QUOTE “unavoidably stop the mill after this week” UNQUOTE. After completing his letter, he lets out a long sigh, tilts his head back, and shakes his head in frustration. The problems Slater is dealing with speak to some of the core issues between him and his business partners. The first has to do with how Almy and Brown view Slater. Although the arrangement of their partnership technically makes them equals, the wealthy Providence merchants struggle to see him as anything more than an employee, a man whose responsibilities do not extend outside of the mill. Therefore, rather than give him the autonomy to purchase cotton on his own, Almy and Brown have retained complete control of this vital part of the business. The pain from that constraint is exacerbated by the fact that Almy and Brown do not understand the operating flow of a manufacturing operation. While their international trading endeavors typically only require a large, one time supply of resources, textile manufacturing requires a constant supply of cotton, a process they’ve failed to adapt to. The final issue is tied to the reality that when it comes down to it, manufacturing is really more of a side hobby for these wealthy merchants. Although their textile operation at Slater Mill has the potential to eventually become a highly profitable business it’s still in its infancy and makes far less money than their maritime activities. So as Slater sits at his Pawtucket mill he thinks about Almy and Brown and the business challenges they represent. This man who wants more than anything to bring Rhode Island into the age of industrialization so that he can become a wealthy industrialist curses the fact that Rhode Island is still a state heavily reliant on farming and trade. And yet, these challenges are just one of the struggles Slater endures during these early years. Because alongside those difficulties, he’s also dealing with an increasingly pernicious workforce who have rightfully begun to rebel against the horrific working conditions at Slater Mill. These dual problems will make the 1790s a very difficult time for Slater but one he will find a way to overcome. Eventually, his success will continue to compound until it convinces him to take a drastic step forward. He will go on to expand his manufacturing operation beyond just the walls of his Mill and create America’s first factory town called Slatersville. These achievements will not only enable him to become a wealthy industrialist but create a blueprint for industrial success that future New England mill owners will replicate. The story of how Slater Mill and Slatersville builds the foundations for industrialization in Rhode Island is what we’ll cover in this week’s episode of the Story of Rhode Island Podcast.

Intro Music

At a first glance, the exterior of Slater Mill doesn’t present the image of a radically new type of American business. Unassumingly Situated along the Blackstone River, the 2 ½ story tall building with post and beam construction looks similar to the region's other domestic and institutional buildings. However, when one steps inside Slater Mill they’re immediately introduced to a radically new world. Inside the establishment are various cotton spinning machines automatically manufacturing cotton yarn, a new type of technology in America that we watched Slater build in last week's episode. Moving rapidly amongst these revolutionary machines are Slater’s employees. Now if I were to ask you to picture what his workers look like you might conjure up images of rugged, middle aged men, but that’s not what you’d see. Instead, you’d find yourself looking at a group of boys and girls between the ages of 7 and 12. These children come from the region's poorest families and have been sent by their parents to work at the mill so that they can help generate some much needed income. And while today we find the idea of child labor absolutely appalling it’s actually considered to be a natural part of life in 18th century America. However, for the past few years, the parents of these children have become increasingly opposed to them working for Slater. The reason for this is because Slater Mill is introducing an entirely new way of working to these largely agrarian individuals, something that is just as revolutionary as the technology they're working with. To start, the work is far more intense. Not only do the machines create an extremely fast paced working environment but they also work on a more rigorous schedule. Instead of allowing the seasons and sun to create natural limitations on their working hours, children are expected to work year round, 6 days a week, twelve hours a day in the winter and sixteen hours a day in the summer. To make it worse, while working on these dangerous machines they’re hardly ever given the lighting or heat they need to work safely at night or in the winter. The parents of these children are also struggling to grasp how their children are being paid as they are some of the first wage earners in America. Instead of receiving an income based on the products created by their hands like farmers and artisans, they are paid for the time they spend working in the factory. Finally, since their children spend so much time working at the mill the parents feel as though Slater is taking over the parental control that should be rightfully theirs. Needless to say, the parents of Slater’s workforce are not thrilled about the type of work that comes with industrialization. They despise it so much that even though the income their children receive from Slater Mill is vital to keeping their family afloat, they often stage acts of protests. In fact, as we visit Slater Mill on an October afternoon in 1796, we see one of these protests taking place. Shouting inside of the mill is Arnold Benchley. Like the other families who rely on Slater for an income, Benchley’s inability to support his family has forced him to send his children to work at Slater’s factory. As he yells at Slater, his six children working at the mill cower behind one of the spinning machines in fear. Benchley tells Slater that he’s had enough. For years now he’s been complaining about the horrific conditions his children are forced to endure. He knows it’ll only be a matter of time before one of them ends up mangled by one of these machines, a fate other children have not been so fortunate to avoid. Then, he continues to tell Slater how on top of all that, his children never receive their payment on time and are often forced to beg for the income they worked so hard for. By the end of his tirade Benchley is so angry that he’s visibly shaking. With his hands clenched into fists he decides that he better leave before he does something he regrets so he makes his way out of the mill. But as he does he also grabs his six children and tells Skater that they’ll never work for him again. Slater attempts to convince them to stay but is unable to do so. With everyone in the mill now looking at him, Slater’s face turns red and he shouts at them to get back to work. Then, he storms off into his office and slams the door behind him. While the scene is certainly embarrassing for the up and coming industrialists the following days don’t get any easier. Over the next few days, more parents pull their children out of the mill and it gets to the point where Slater is forced to shut down the factory for a short time. So while Slater Mill is celebrated as playing a key role in igniting the industrial revolution in America, it’s important to remember that the changes it’s bringing to everyday life are harshly rejected by many local citizens. Unlike Slater and the Brown family who see industrialization as a way to free their nation from its economic dependency on Great Britain while also making themselves mass amounts of wealth, many everyday individuals see it as a harsh and unforgiving new way of working that they wanted nothing to do with. And while such sentiments might paint the picture of a failing endeavor, Slater and his business partners actually manage to generate a profit during these tumultuous years. The fact that they’re able to do so despite Almy and Brown's operational inabilities and a rebellious workforce, speaks to just how powerful of a technology they have their hands on. In fact, Slater is so convinced about the potential of this technology that in 1797 he goes into business with Oziel Wilkinson, a name you might recall from last week’s episode. Oziel is one of the men who helped Slater recreate the cotton spinning technology in a Pawtucket clothier shop back in 1790. You might also remember how Slater was growing fond of Oziel’s daughter while living with the Wilkson family. Well Hannah also found herself smitten by Slater and the two are now happily married. And so With Slater now business partners with his father in law, the two men build a mill on the blackstone river directly across from Slater Mill on the Blackstone River. They call it the “White Mill” and it’s located in Rehoboth, Massachusetts, a town Rhode Island will annex decades later. The differing experiences Slater has at the White Mill vs. Slater Mill is clear as night and day. By having far more control over the factory’s business operations Slater’s able to avoid the supply chain challenges he experiences with Almy and Brown and implements a strategy focused on mass producing specialized products that proves to be quite profitable. This by no means turns him into a wealthy industrialist but proves to be a promising forward that adds momentum to his journey. And so, With his success and confidence steadily climbing, Slater begins to think bigger. He finds himself no longer just focusing on what’s taking place inside of his mills but with the world around it as well. For years, this thought will merely exist as seed inside of his busy mind but one that will eventually turn into an idea that launches Rhode Island even further into the age of industrialization.

It’s April of 1799 and lining the shores of the Providence River are rows of large ships towering over the docks below them. With a dense fog resting over Rhode Island’s founding city, the sounds of an economy heavily reliant on maritime trade are heard throughout the downtown area; merchants chat with business partners about their profits, hammers swung by carpenters bang against ships in need of repair, and sailors curse at each while working in the ship decks. Pulling up alongside one of the docks is the largest vessel of them all, the Anne and Hope, a ship owned by close relatives of William Almy and Obadiah Brown. And The Anne and Hope is just one of the many vessels owned by the Brown family. With names like Hamilton, John Jay, and General Washington their expansive fleet signifies that like most 18th century merchant families their political allegiances lie with the Federalists, a party they feel more adequately supports their mercantile endeavors. With the ship finally returning from an arduous voyage to China, the vessel’s captain shouts out orders to his men so that he can wrap things up and get home to his family as quickly as possible. Observing the activities taking place in this busy coastal town is a frustrated Samuel Slater. After yet another vexing meeting with William Almy and Obadiah Brown he’s decided to take a walk down Water Street hoping that it would clear his mind. Unfortunately, it’s doing the exact opposite. Because all around Slater are reminders that his Providence’s business partners are merchants, not industrialists and that they live in a world focused on trading goods not manufacturing them. And he can’t blame them as the 1790s have been extremely profitable for those involved in international trade. Not only have they maintained their business relations with Europe and the West Indies but they’ve also deepened their connection with China. By expanding their network they’ve dramatically increased their wealth and opened up Rhode Island to a host of exotic goods. Items like Porcelain, silk, and Lacquerware (lack-er-wear) are now flaunted in homes of the state's most prominent families. Selling these goods has been so profitable that Rhode Island merchants continue to send their ships abroad even though America is in the middle of the Quasi War with France. They figure that the profits made from a successful voyage will easily offset the losses that come from one of their ships being captured by French privateers. And with so much money being made at sea, Rhode Island craftsmen, mechanics, and storekeepers living in these coastal towns have inevitably become deeply intertwined with the merchants' business activities. While mechanics and craftsmen build and repair various ship parts and tools, storekeepers sell the goods that are brought into their ports from the outside world. But it doesn’t end there. Even rural farming communities in south county and the rocky lands of northwestern Rhode Island have been swept up in the business as well. They participate by producing surplus goods that are traded at markets in the state’s coastal communities. This obsession with trade has made Rhode Island the most commercialized economy in the United States and a place that has a deep connection with the sea. So while everyone in Rhode Island has their eyes directed outwards towards the ocean, Slater has his sights directed in the opposite direction, inward towards the currents of the state's various rivers. To him, this is where the future lies and this is where he will acquire the generational wealth he came to America to build. But Slater’s beginning to realize that if he’s going to achieve the success he so anxiously desires then he’ll have to carve out his own place in this commercialized world filled with merchants, farmers, and artisans. He must create a place whose population, buildings, and institutions are solely dedicated to manufacturing. This will not only give him control over his business operations but his workforce as well. And so this is the thought that lingers on Slater’s mind for years and one that eventually morphes into a goal. Helping him achieve this goal is his younger brother, John, who comes to Rhode Island in 1803. John brings with him the same type of industrial experience that his brother obtained while working at textile factories in England, making them a powerful team. While not busy running the two mills on the Blackstone River, the brothers strategize on how they will create their manufacturing village. The two men spend numerous nights discussing what this society will look like and the systems they’ll need to implement to create an orderly workforce. Eventually they develop a blueprint for their town and begin looking for a place to build it. As we follow them on their journey we learn a little more about the brother’s vision for their village and how it will blend the old with the new to create something that is uniquely American.

As Samuel Slater trudges through a damp field swarming with insects, a heavy layer of mud builds up on the soles of his boots. Following closely behind him is his brother John who can be seen swiping at the mosquitoes and gnats attacking his face. On this not so pleasant, muggy afternoon in 1805, the men are in a place called Buffum’s Mill, a desolate outpost that nobody in their right mind would willingly go to. Named after the Quaker family who owns most of the land, the swampy area the Slater’s are visiting is part of present day North Smithfield but at the time is basically in the middle of nowhere. Located about a mile south of the Massachusetts border, its distance from the city makes it an ideal hiding place for all sorts of outcasts and criminals. Eventually, Samuel and John, sweating profusely from their uncomfortable walk, take a break from their trek in the mud. After using his forearm to wipe the sweat off of his forehead, Samuel Slater looks at the land around him and tells his brother that it’s perfect. Almost instantly John looks back at him and says “I know, it’s exactly what we need”. While at first the location might not seem like the ideal place to build a town, the mud filled field they're standing on actually gives the brothers the clean slate they’re looking for. They know they can morphe the largely untouched land all around them into a village that will be solely focused on supporting their manufacturing business. On top of that, the river running through the town, a waterway known as the Branch River, drops over forty feet in just a mile, meaning it’ll give them the power they need to run their mills. But the brothers know that in order to convince future workers to move to their industrialized village they can’t just rebuild the factory towns they came from in England. Instead they must create an environment filled with comforting aspects of traditional New England life to help ease these former farmers into this new way of living. Then, once they’re in, they can implement the same systems of control they saw being used in England to create an orderly workforce. By merging these two worlds into one they will build a place that is uniquely American, a town that will expand the world of industrialization beyond just the walls of their mills. And so while relying on capital from Almy and Brown the brothers proceed to buy up the land at Buffum’s Mill and begin building their textile factories along the Branch River. Then after laying out some roads, housing, and of course a church they begin recruiting their workforce. Finally, in 1807, the village known as Slatersville is complete and America’s first factory town is born.

It’s the summer of 1808 and on this fine day we find ourselves in the newly constructed town of Slatersville. While there we poke our heads inside one of the mills and see rows of smoothly operating water-powered cotton carding and spinning machines. Diligently working alongside the fast-paced machines is an obedient workforce, something Slater feared he’d never see while overseeing Slater Mill throughout the 1790s. Passing by his workers is a seemingly endless supply of cotton being brought into the mill, a key part of the textile manufacturing supply chain process Slater struggled to receive from Almy and Brown. And so, with his technology, workforce, and supply chain operations running smoothly we see that Samuel Slater has finally overcome the challenges he battled throughout the late 18th century. Along with being America’s first factory town and a place that churns out cotton yarn at a rate never before seen in the United States, Slaterville also gives us a glimpse into Rhode Island’s future. As we observe a few of the workers at the mill, we learn a little more about how the Slater brothers overcame one of their biggest challenges - creating an efficient and obedient workforce. Heard throughout the factory is the ringing of a large bell situated on top of the building. Upon hearing the bell, a group of three young siblings smile as they know their workday has finally come to an end. After spending a few minutes packing up their belongings they begin making their way toward the exit. These children, like all the other young factory hands around them, are excited to go home and get some rest after their grueling 12 hour work day. Once outside, the siblings are surrounded by familiar aspects of a traditional New England town. There’s a common area, a main street with various stores, and a congregational church they religiously attend with their parents. The Slater brothers have created such an environment so that the children feel at home even though they’re working jobs that are unlike anything they’ve ever done before. And That feeling of familiarity continues when the siblings return home. Behind their humble abode is a small garden filled with vegetables to nourish their bodies after a hard day's work. Inside of the home is their mother who is seen cooking some of the vegetables from their garden. The smell of a large stew reminds the children of the many evenings they used to have while living on their family farm. And to ensure the parents of these children remain happy as well, the Slaters have also recreated the traditional family system of labor. While their father is given work on one of the Slaterville farms their mother stays at home to tend to the house, jobs customary to the life of agriculture they come from. They’ve also made the parents feel as though they still hold ultimate authority over their children by allowing them to negotiate their contracts and making them the recipients of their wages. The fact that the Slater brothers have had to adopt these types of traditional American norms speaks to their need to meet the demands of a finite workforce. They’ve learned that if they’re going to pull families off of their farm and into the factory it must be done in a delicate manner. And so for a moment it almost seems as though the workers have a substantial amount of bargaining power. However, when one digs a bit deeper we see that’s not entirely true. Because alongside those accommodations, the Slater brothers have maintained the upper hand by implementing various systems of control they saw being used in England. For example, remember that idyllic church the children saw while exiting the mill? Ya well its purpose is not only to provide for the spiritual needs of the workers but to help the Slater brother's achieve their secular goals as well. Many of the sermons shared at the church are hyper focused on things like obedience, punctuality, and self-discipline; habits that Slater knows will create a productive industrial workforce. And after church these ideals are also frequently discussed at Sunday School as well. Slater is known to have admitted that Sunday Schools are used to QUOTE “condition the children for their primary duty in life as hewers of wood and drawers of water” UNQUOTE. The first and most important rule taught in Sunday School is obedience. Teachers often ask their students to reminisce on all the times they failed to be obedient to their superiors and how they can overcome their unruly ways. Then, they remind them of the consequences that come to those who continue living a life of sinful disobedience with hymns that paint a horrific picture of the eternal damnation sinners will face.. However, if those methods fail then ministers also encourage parents to ensure their children remain obedient. After all, those who fail to be obedient are sinners and they wouldn’t want their children going to hell. But perhaps his most effective tactic is training children to be their own task masters. They’re taught the importance of self-discipline and developing an internal drive to adhere to the values shared by the leaders of their community. And even if all those layers of persuasion fail, the Slater brothers can ultimately rely on the workers' disadvantaged economic state. Pretty much everyone living in Slatersville has moved to the village out of economic necessity and now receives employment from the Slaters in one way or another. The factories and farms being worked by the children, fathers, and single mothers are all owned by the Slaters. A child failing to remain obedient at work might not only result in them being fired from the mill but their father being let go from his job on a Slater owned farm as well. Slater knows that these families, already living on the brink of destitution, can’t risk such a devastating series of events. And so, what we see at Slatersville is a world that perfectly blends familiarity with control. A place that welcomes struggling rural families into their industrialized society with open arms only to end up taking hold of their lives once they’ve arrived. And if this society filled with child labor and manipulation isn’t bad enough then also keep in mind that Slater gets his cotton from enslaved men and women living in America’s southern states. Their means of supplying cotton is not only unfortunate but also ironic when one recalls that the man who got Slater on his feet to begin with, Moses Brown, was one of America's earliest and most ardent abolitionists. But nonetheless, Slatersville proves to be a huge success. The mill village system created by Slater and his brother, later known as the Rhode Island System, will be copied by future industrialists throughout the region and lead to the two men becoming wealthy industrialists. So as we make our way towards the end of this episode and wrap up the time we’ll be spending with Samuel Slater this season I’d like to take a step back and think about the profound effects this man has had on society. On a positive note, by bringing England’s water-powered cotton spinning technology to the United States and creating America’s first industrial factory and factory town, this once penniless immigrant has given America the foundation it needs to industrialize its textile industry, the effects of which will be momentous. Because as that begins to happen, other industries will become industrialized as well and before long the entire nation will be swept up by the Industrial Revolution. This transformation will not only free America from being economically dependent on its mother country but turn it into an economic powerhouse, a place that acts as a refuge for destitute immigrants throughout the world. But at the same time, to create the foundations for that economic revolution Slater relied heavily on child labor, systems of control that almost seem Orwellian to us today, and cotton grown by enslaved people living in the south. So what are we to make of Slater’s success? Should we praise him for laying the groundwork for an economic revolution or shun him for perpetuating institutions we find abhorrent today? If we choose the former then does that make us guilty of disregarding those who were negatively affected by this change? On the other hand, if we choose the latter, do we really think it’s fair to admonish historical figures for not adhering to our modern day values? Then again, maybe the answer isn’t so black and white. Perhaps we honor Slater’s achievements while also taking the time to remember the struggles our nation’s marginalized communities have been forced to endure. Either way, whatever conclusion you come to, one thing that is indisputable. Samuel Slater is the Father of the American Industrial Revolution and that revolution was started in Rhode Island. And by the start of the 19th century Rhode Island has the foundations it needs to turn itself into an industrialized society; all it needs now is a reason to do so. Well that reason will come soon enough. As the first decade of the 19th century comes to a close, tensions between America and its former mother country are on the rise and trade relations between the two powers are about to break down. When they do, it will prove to be disastrous for the merchant families of Rhode Island and force them to look elsewhere for wealth. Eventually, they’ll turn their backs on the sea and set their sights on the swift currents of Rhode Island’s various waterways. As these merchants slowly morphe into full blown industrialists they will find themselves consumed by a manufacturing obsession that Moses Brown calls “cotton mill fever” and Rhode Island will be thrust down a path of industrialization that it will follow for decades to come. But that’s a story for next time on next week’s episode of The Story of Rhode Island Podcast.