BONUS - Slavery in Rhode Island Part 2

Hello and welcome to the story of Rhode Island. The Podcast that tells you the story of Rhode Island’s fascinating history. In part 1 of this two part bonus episode we watched America’s smallest colony become deeply embedded in the institution of slavery. Not only was it responsible for most of the slave trading activities done by the American colonists throughout the 18th century but its towns and cities also relied on enslaved labor more than any other New England colony. But thankfully, there are some people within Rhode Island who are no longer willing to see their economy thrive on the backs of this dreadful institution. And as we jump into the second part of this bonus episode, we take a look at one of these men. His name is Moses and on this winter afternoon in 1784 he’s attempting to convince the state’s government to outlaw both slavery and the slave trade in Rhode Island. As he shares his arguments with the government officials, his primary opponent, a man named John, sits with a smug look on his face, eager to discredit the statements Moses is making. The longer Moses speaks, the more John rolls his eyes and shakes his head, letting his opponent know just how much he disagrees with his arguments. The two men engaged in this debate couldn't be more opposite. Whereas Moses is humble, often preferring to listen rather than speak, John is egotistical and has a hard time keeping his mouth shut. The fact that he’s allowed Moses to speak this long without interrupting is somewhat of a miracle in itself. And while Moses enjoys spending his free time alone in deep contemplation, perhaps attempting to better understand the word of God, John is more outgoing and prefers large social gatherings filled with other members of Rhode Island’s upper class. They even look different. Moses' slim body is covered with the plain garb of a devoutly religious Quaker while the attire around John’s wide waist is a clear statement of his wealth and success. But at the same time, there are a few things these two men have in common. They’re both short, they both live in Providence, Oh and they’re brothers. Moses and John Brown are members of one of Providence’s most respected families and over the past few decades, they’ve made their family wealthier than ever before. And while they haven’t always found themselves at odds, there is no doubt in anyone’s mind that on this afternoon in 1784, they are in complete disagreement. But such confrontations are to be expected, as Moses and his fellow Quaker abolitionists are attempting to divorce Rhode Island from an institution that’s enabled their economy to expand dramatically over the past several decades. Moses is realizing first-hand just how difficult his mission will be and as we’re about to see, the Rhode Island economy will remain attached to slavery long after Moses’ lifetime. Because even after the last enslaved person in Rhode Island is freed and the merchants have given up on the slave trade, America’s smallest state will once again become an industry leader in a business that directly supports this horrific institution. The story of how Rhode Island’s connection with slavery continues well into the 19th century is what we’ll cover in part 2 of this 2 part bonus episode of the Story of Rhode Island Podcast.

Intro music

While John Brown continues to watch his brother speak to the members of the Rhode Island General Assembly, he thinks back to when his obsession with the abolitionist cause first began. It started a little more than 10 years ago, back in 1773 when Moses' wife passed away, an event that Moses attributed to God punishing him for owning slaves. This drove him to free his slaves and ignited his fight to eradicate the institution entirely. Over the next decade, he attempted to pass bills that would put an immediate end to slavery in Rhode Island but both were rejected by the General Assembly. And now, John is witnessing his brother's latest attack against the institution via a bill that’s looking to accomplish two goals. First, the bill calls for the gradual emancipation of all enslaved people in the state. Second, and far more controversial, is it’s aim to make it illegal for Rhode Islanders to participate in the slave trade, a form of commerce that drove economic growth in the colony for decades leading up to the Revolutionary War. But to Moses economic growth is no justification for slavery. To him and a growing number of Americans, such an institution directly opposes the ideals they fought for during the Revolution. He tells the state’s Governor why the words of the Declaration of Independence itself supports his bill. It’s simply irrational for Rhode Islanders to claim that all men are created equal while they continue to treat others as if they are property. But eventually he realizes that he’s clearly made his point so he wraps up his speech. As he makes his way back to his chair, John gives his notes one final review before starting his arguments. Then, with his brother now sitting, John stands up and makes his way to the center of the courthouse in a calm yet assertive manner. Before speaking, he takes a minute to make eye contact with each one of the government officials in front of him, displaying just how comfortable he is with being the center of attention. Then, he initiates his argument with a point of view that while shocking to us today is actually quite common at the time; the morality of the slave trade. He asks his audience if they would prefer to see these poor individuals live a life of slavery in Africa, a place where working conditions are so brutal that most succumb to the work shortly after it begins. While looking directly at the Governor he asks; Do our slaves not live a relatively good life in America? Are they not provided with food, clothing, and shelter and at times even seen as part of the family? Surely the answer is yes, he exclaims. So then why, why would we think to stop our citizens from freeing these poor souls from such a miserable life in Africa? As John continues to emphatically speak about the morality of the slave trade, Moses is reminded about his brothers ability to influence others and how this skill enabled John to develop business partnerships with people throughout the state. And then, as his brother’s voice slowly begins to rise and his speech turns into a fiery sermon, he’s reminded about the passion that seems to always be burning inside of his brother. It was that same temperament that drove him to destroy a royal vessel known as the Gaspee before the Revolutionary War even began. And finally, as his brother now somehow finds himself joking with the government officials, making even those who disagree with him laugh, Moses is reminded about just how damn likable his brother is. And so, With his brother's skillset now being used to attack his bill, Moses becomes worried that his bill will be shot down like the others before. Over the next couple of days, Moses pleads his case while his brother does everything he can to prevent him from being successful. Along with making his own speeches, John also has other influential Rhode Islanders like Revolutionary War veteran, Esek Hopkins, speak in defense of the slave trade. When it comes time vote, John’s efforts are proven to be partially effective as he convinces the General Assembly to vote down the ban on the slave trade. But thankfully, the first part of Moses’ bill overcomes the onslaughts from his brother and in March of 1784 Rhode Island passes a gradual emancipation act that makes it illegal for any person born after March 1st 1784 to be enslaved. And while the Bill is by no means perfect as anyone born before that date will remain enslaved, it is at least a start. As the years pass, Moses’ fight against slavery continues and in 1787 he wins another victory when the General Assmebly decides to ban Rhode Islanders from participating in the slave trade. For a while, it seems as though the state is moving in the right direction and slowly separating itself from the institution. Unfortunately, things will not continue that way because just like the 1652 law that made slavery illegal in Rhode Island, the state’s ban on the slave trade will largely be ignored. Not only will the law fail to lessen the state’s involvement in the trading of African captives but Rhode Island is actually about to become more active in the slave trade than ever before. To learn more about how this happens we’ll meet a man named James DeWolf, a leading citizen from the town of Bristol and one of the most prolific slave traders America has ever seen.

It’s the summer of 1790 and tied to a chair on a ship in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, is an enslaved woman extremely ill with smallpox. As the ship bobs up and down on the ocean waters, the enslaved woman fades in and out of consciousness. For the past few days, this woman has been quarantined from the rest of the crew and the other enslaved people onboard. If her disease were to infect the other African captives then many would likely die, making the slaving voyage less profitable than originally planned. Standing a safe distance from the woman is the ship’s crew who are being ridiculed by their Captain, James DeWolf. Born in 1764, James is one of the biggest slave traders in Rhode Island. He’s well aware that the slave trade is illegal in his state but the immense profits that come with it are simply too good for the him and his family to pass up. Back in their hometown of Bristol, the DeWolf’s are pretty much royalty. Their illegal ventures have made them enough money that the family now owns a bank, insurance companies, textile mills, and distilleries. It’s by no means an overstatement to say that the economy of their picturesque town is primarily tied to the DeWolf family’s human trafficking activities, explaining why locals are so willing to ignore Jame’s blatantly illegal slave trading voyages. As we return our attention back to the enslaved woman sitting in the chair, we see James shouting at his men. He tells them that if the woman is not taken care of then she’s bound to infect others on board. To prevent this from happening, Captain DeWolf is ordering his men to throw the woman overboard. But the men refuse as they know that such an action could lead to them being convicted of murder. Finally, becoming fed up with their unwillingness to obey his orders, DeWolf decides to take matters into his own hands. He angrily walks over to the woman, tightens the ropes that have her tied to the chair, and gags her mouth to ensure her screams won’t be heard. Then, he uses one of the cranes to lift her chair from the deck and maneuver it over the water. And finally, with tears streaming down the woman’s cheeks and a look of terror imprinted on her face, the enslaved woman is dropped into the ocean. When the deed is done, the sailors are in shock. Nobody onboard says a word. Everyone just stands there and quietly watches their captain as he continues to look out towards the ocean. For another moment or two, DeWolf remains silent as he comes to terms with what he’s done. When he eventually turns back towards his men, the sailors are surprised to see what vaguely looks like a feeling of remorse on their typically cold-hearted captain’s face. After taking a second to clear his throat, DeWolf tells his men that he’s sorry that they’ve just lost such a good chair. When the crew makes it back to Rhode Island, one of the men tells the local authorities about the crime and DeWolf is convicted of murder. But as we so often see throughout history, this incredibly wealthy and powerful individual finds a way to avoid punishment. Following his conviction, DeWolf flees Rhode Island and takes up refuge on an island in the West Indies. While there, he has his case tried by the island’s corrupt government and is found not guilty. Then, his arrest warrant back in Rhode Island is eventually dropped and he returns home in 1795 as if nothing ever happened. The fact that this man’s been able to get away with murdering a woman while completing an illegal slaving voyage demonstrates Rhode Island’s inability to enforce the ban on slave trading. And so, it’s due to this fact why during the early 1790s, the number of slave voyages in the state actually grows by 30%. Then, in 1795, Rhode Islanders go on more slave trading voyages than any other year in the state’s history. To further illustrate just how little citizens cared about this ban on slavery, the people of Rhode Island elect James DeWolf into the Rhode Island General Assembly on and off from 1797 until his death in 1837. Now, it is important to note that not everyone in the state is so willing to turn a blind eye to this activity. Along with Moses Brown, men like William Ellery, signer of the Declaration of Independence and ardent abolitionist, vigorously attempts to put an end to the state’s slave trading activities while serving as custom collector. Ellery puts up a valiant fight but is unable to make much progress. Even when it looks like he’ll finally confiscate one of DeWolf’s ships he fails to do so because DeWolf has the man in charge of the confiscation kindapped. To learn more about that story check out the episodes webpage. Thankfully, Rhode Island is eventually forced to give up in the slave trade when the federal government makes it illegal in 1808. And around this time the number of enslaved people living in Rhode Island is shrinking as well. By 1820, there are only 44 enslaved people living in the state. And so, for a while it once again seems like Rhode Island’s ties with this horrific institution are finally going to be cut once and for all. Unfortunately, as the saying goes “old habits die hard” and Rhode Island’s relationship with slavery is not yet ready to perish. But this time, it won’t be the state’s wealthy merchants who are responsible for that connection. Instead, it’ll be tied to a new group of entrepreneurs who are investing heavily in the state’s rapid industrialization. To learn about how Rhode Island’s ties with slavery continue right up to the Civil War, we’ll head back to southern Rhode Island and learn about a new type of industry popping up in South County, an industry that like others before it, is heavily reliant on slavery.

It’s the mid 19th century and the extravagant life once lived by the famed Narragansett planters is a thing of the past. South County’s large-scale, highly profitable plantations have been broken down into smaller, more modest farms that merely allow most of its owners to eke out a living. Because of this, many of the area's younger residents have turned their back on a life of agriculture and now look elsewhere for work. Thankfully, the Industrial Revolution has swept through America and small manufacturing villages filled with mills have popped up in South County. To the region’s youth the economic opportunity these mills provide are seen as a way out of the arduous labor that comes with working Rhode Island’s rocky soil. Walking up to one of these sources of inspiration on a Fall day in 1850 is Rowland G. Hazard, one of Rhode Island’s leading industrialists. Rowland and his brother, Isaac, are the owners of the Peace Dale Manufacturing Company, a business that consists of a set of mills situated on the Saugatucket River in South Kingstown. The mills have been in the family since their father purchased half interest in them back in 1802 and since then Rowland and Isaac have turned them into one of New England’s most respected enterprises. As Rowland makes his way into one of his many mills, he sees men and women laboring away on a revolutionary machine called the power loom. Originally built in Europe, the power loom is a highly effective piece of equipment that has automated the once manual process of weaving thread into cloth. As various gears, pulleys, and belts shift and slam up against each other, workers monitor the painfully loud tool as it produces fabric at a dizzying pace. Once the fabric is complete, it’ll then be boxed up and sent out to plantations in the southern states. And it’s this latter part that allows us to understand how Rhode Island has maintained its relationship with slavery even after all of the state’s enslaved people have been freed and its participation in the slavery trade has long since ended. Because the Peace Dale Manufacturing Company, like many other mills in South County, produces a set of clothing known as “Negro Goods”. These cheap products primarily consist of pants, dresses, and shoes that are made from unwanted materials discarded by other mills. They are sold to plantation owners in the southern states so that they can clothe their enslaved workers for as little as possible. And although slavery in the north is quickly becoming a thing of the past, the number of enslaved people in the south has grown dramatically over the past few decades, a trend that Rhode Island is also loosely tied to. Because It was Caty Greene, Rhode Island native and widow of Revolutionary War hero, Nathanael Greene, who partially financed the invention that helped enable this growth, the cotton gin. By speeding up the process of separating cotton fiber from seeds the Cotton Gin has enabled America to keep up with a growing demand for cotton. On the other hand, this has also resulted in a need for more enslaved workers to harvest cotton that will be sent to the gin, which in turn has also generated a growing demand for negro goods. And just like the Rhode Island merchants of the 18th century who supplied these plantations with enslaved men and women from Africa, Rhode Island’s industrialists of the 19th century are now more than happy to produce negro goods for southern slave owners. As a result, these small mill communities have grown into miniature versions of Rhode Island’s 18th century economy. Similar to how the entire colony once revolved around the slave trading business operating out of Newport, the industrialized villages of South County have become centered around these mills that produce negro goods. The Hazard’s Peace Dale Manufacturing Company acts as the nucleus for the village of Peace Dale; its arms, like tentacles, extend well beyond the mill's front doors. Local establishments like the general store, school, and tenement houses are all owned by the Hazards and exist because of the family’s willingness to produce goods for southern slave owners. A map of Peace Dale in the mid 19th century shows numerous buildings and plots of land with the family or their mill’s name on it, illustrating the wealth that's been generated by this business that’s so deeply tied to slavery. Even one of the village's roads, Kersey Road, bears the same name as one of the types of cloth that is produced for southern slave owners. But such a phenomenon isn’t unique to South Kingstown. In North Kingstown, the Rodman family mill off of Ten Rod Road has developed the same type of partnership. As the Rodman family continues to add more power looms and produce more negro goods, more tenement houses and general stores emerge in the village of Lafayette. In fact, by 1850, almost 80% of all the mills in Rhode Island produce negro goods in one way or another. And as capital investments continue to bring larger and more efficient power looms into these mills, the rate of production continues to rise, enabling America’s smallest state to become the number 1 producer of Negro Goods in the entire nation by the end of the decade. However, while the bond between Rhode Island mill owners and southern slave owners is becoming stronger, tensions between America's northern and southern states are growing as well. As the 1850s come to an end, the voices for and against slavery have become more entrenched in their point of view than ever before and it begins to look as though it’ll only be a matter of time before the nation erupts in violence. With America standing on the precipice of a civil war that will end Rhode Island’s relationship with slavery once and for all we head to Jamestown so we can meet James Howland. Howland is a man who understands the evils of slavery more than anyone else in Rhode Island and who is the last living embodiment of a time when enslaved people made up a significant portion of the state’s population.

James Howland was born into slavery in 1759, making him just 25 years old when Moses Brown passed his gradual emancipation Act of 1784. Unfortunately, since the act only freed people who were born after March 1st of that year, Howland would not be freed by the law. I often wonder what type of emotion people in Howland’s position felt when they learned about the act being passed. It obviously must have been disappointing to know that you would have to remain enslaved while others were freed but what goes with that feeling? Is Howland happy for the other people in his family he’ll be able to watch grow up free? Is he excited to know that his family’s younger generation will have a better life than he had? Or Is there a part of him that’s jealous? Does he lay in bed late at night and wonder why they were freed and not him?” But then again, maybe the law makes him hopeful. Perhaps it makes him believe that with this law being passed, it’ll now only be a matter of time before another one is passed that frees all the enslaved people in the state. I'm not sure and one can only speculate but what we do know is that Howland would remain enslaved for quit some time. In fact, it takes nearly 50 years for him to be emancipated as he doesn’t go on to gain his freedom until about 1830. After being freed, he spends the next couple of decades continuing to live and work for the same family that originally owned him in Jamestown By the time we visit Howland on a summer morning in 1859, he’s now reached the ripe old age of 100 and he is the last living person in Rhode Island who was once enslaved. As Howland arises from a long night's rest he thinks of all the work he has ahead of him for the day. After taking a few minutes to stretch out his body that’s been beaten down by decades of difficult labor, he dresses himself and begins the household chores he’s done so many times before. While ruthlessly scrubbing a spot on the floor that he’s been trying to get out for days now, he sees some of the family’s grandchildren playing around outside. As they run around laughing, he watches them play in the same soil that he spent most of his life farming summer after summer, no matter how hot the sun may have been. After a few more minutes of scrubbing, he hears somebody upstairs asking him to help with another chore. The elderly man tosses the rag over his shoulder, stands up slowly, and makes his way towards the stairs. But just as he grabs the wooden rail alongside the staircase he feels his body grow faint. Then, with his grip on the rail coming loose and his legs giving out completely, he collapses on the floor. Within minutes, his heart stops and he passes away. Being that he was the last person alive who was once esnkved, The passing of Howland in 1859 is somewhat symbolic. his death comes just a couple of years before the outbreak of the Civil War, a horrific conflict that once and for all ends Rhode Island’s multi century long relationship with slavery. It’s a relationship that dates back to the state’s inception when the founder of Rhode Island purchased a Pequot boy so that he could be his servant, initiating a trend of enslaving indigenous people that continued with the Narragansett and Pokanoket tribes following King Philip’s War. Then, with the emergence of the 18th century, Rhode Island built a thriving economy on the back of slavery by dominating the North American slave trade and by forcing enslaved men, women, and children to work their plantations at home. Finally, as the federal government began forcing local merchants to give up on the slave trade, the state’s industrialists began dipping their toes in the production of negro goods, an American industry that at the time of Howland’s passing was dominated by mill owners in South County. And so that is the ugly tale about Rhode Island’s relationship with slavery and thanks to people and organizations throughout the state, it’s a story that is being told more and more everyday. If you want to learn more about that story then you can read about it by picking up Christy Clark-Pujara’s meticulously researched book called “Dark Works: the Business of Slavery in Rhode Island”. If reading’s not your thing then you can watch Tim Cranston discuss the history of slavery in South County by checking out his speech on youtube called setting the record straight. But perhaps that’s not quite enough, maybe you want to actually see the places where slavery had the biggest impact on our state. Well lucky for you, you can do that by attending tours like the “Lost Voices at Smith’s Castle” or by checking out the various slave history medallions that mark sites connected to the history of slavery in Rhode Island. These resources, as well as others I have listed on this episode's webpage, help us come to terms with the fact that Rhode Island’s multi century long ties to slavery had an immeasurable impact on a countless number of black and indigenous people. It’s a truth that although painful to hear must be told because it undeniably played a substantial role in The Story of Rhode Island.